Confusing Words Clarified: Group C; Homonyms, Homophones, Homographs, Synonyms, etc. +

To ardently want something that another person has; to long for with envy: "When I was young, I used to covet my friend’s pretty clothes."

Concealed, hidden, disguised, secret, or surreptitious: "The head of the company received a covert threat."

Clearly evident: "He had an overt dislike for his new supervisor."

1. The mature female of cattle of the genus Bos: "A cow produces milk for her young and for people as an important food."
2. The mature female of other large animals, such as whales, elephants, or moose: "The female whale is another animal known as a cow."

To frighten with threats or a show of force; to intimidate: "They were trying to cow him into silence with attacks in the press."

Showing fear in the face of danger or pain: "He felt like a coward when he jumped at the unexpected sound."

To cringe in fear: "He cowered in his house as the wind storm blew harder."

1. To force something into an inadequate space; to stuff: "He was trying to cram his sweater into a bag which was too small."
2. To fill or to pack tightly: "He was successful in getting his sweater to cram into a bag which was slightly bigger."
3. To eat greedily, to stuff oneself with food: "For some reason, she would cram the food into her mouth even when she had plenty of time to eat."
4. To force information into the mind, or to fill a person with information; such as, regarding intensive study for an examination: "They were trying to cram for the final exam which would take place tomorrow."

The law's last vestige of ordeal by fire is a legal torture called the bar exam.

Run by lawyers, judges and professors, cram schools are often big business. Before becoming a federal judge, New York Lawyer Harold Medina crammed 800 students for $28,000 a year.

"While their friends played video games in pajamas or vacationed in the tropics, a dozen sixth graders spent winter break at Elite Academy in Flushing, Queens, New York; memorizing word roots."

"Time was ticking as they prepared to face the thing they had talked about, dreamed about and lost sleep over for much of the past year: the Hunter College High School admissions exam, a strenuous three-hour test that weeds out about 90 percent of those who take it."

Plants (Cenchrus biflorus) that cover the dunes in the Sahara; especially encountered in the Republic of Mali which have tiny, spiky burrs: "Usually after walking through cram-cram and getting them stuck to your pants, it is easier just to throw the pants away rather than to try to clear them of the cram-cram burrs."

Only a few kinds of hardy, thorny plants can survive the harsh conditions of the Sahel zone of West and Central Africa.

The Sahel zone is sparsely vegetated with tough plants that can live for long periods without rain. The tiny, spiky burrs of cram-cram grasses scatter across the land, sticking to anything that moves.

The term cram-cram comes from the Wolof term xaaxaam. The Wolof people live in Senegal, The Gambia, and southern Mauritania; and Wolof is the native language of this ethnic group of people.

Wolof is the most widely spoken language in Senegal, spoken not only by members of the Wolof ethnic group (approximately 40 percent of the population) but also by most other Senegalese.

First-personal experiences with cram-cram by Dr. Karl Heinz Striedter

Coming back from field research in the central Sahara and going to Niamey (capital city of Niger), our team crossed the Sahel belt (a dry zone, extending from Sudan in the east to Senegal in the west, and separating the Sahara from the tropical regions of western and central Africa). At lunchtime we stopped some 100 meters away from the road in the thinning shadow of an acacia tree.

After lunch, and a short siesta, we decided to have a look at a strange banco (or banko) ruin we had seen when arriving; however, to go there, we had to cross a vast field of cram-cram which had in this season a bright yellowish color.

Banco is an African term for mud (local earth/clay plus water) mixed with straw and/or husks of cereals (plus cow dung which hardens to a smooth solid and is used for coating walls and ceilings).

The architecture which utilizes banco mudbricks is found in the whole Sahel zone of Africa, but it also exists in other parts of Africa and in additional areas of the world. It has excellent cooling properties for the living areas of those who exist in high-temperature conditions.

At any rate, a colleague, having lived for some time in the Niger republic, warned me about the very unpleasant peculiarities of the seeds of the cram-cram plant, which dig their claws into any cloth and skin, and the unimaginable problems to get them off. So we looked for a path which was already made by a man or an animal.

Although there were many paths going in various directions in the field, none of them could keep us from being grabbed by the multitudes of cram-cram as they extended their seed pods with their tiny hooks into any moving creature that moved through the trails.

The only rational being, my friend's dog, evidently with some relevant experiences, while barking refused to cross into the field of cram-cram. My friend had to carry his canine friend well above the threatening plants.

Later, while continuing on with our drive to Niamey, I felt an extreme itching on my feet and legs; which was so bad that I had to pull my socks off. Finally, no matter how much I washed the socks, I still couldn't get rid of the thorny cram-cram, so I threw them away. My trousers were not as bad as the socks, so, I gave them to someone who was not as sensitive to cram-cram as I was.

1. An involuntary, sudden, painful muscular contraction; such as, in a leg, often caused by a strain or a sudden chill: "Too often, I wake up with a cramp in each leg."
2. A paralysis of local muscles caused by continued over exertion: "He developed writer's cramp in his hands because he would not stop for a rest."
3. To prevent someone from behaving or expressing his or her emotions and thoughts freely: "She felt as if the school's strict rule of not talking unless called upon by the teacher would cramp her desire to express herself."

1. An iron bar bent at both ends, used to bind two stones, various timbers, etc., together: "The man was able to hold the two large stones together with a cramp."
2. An adjustable frame in which pieces may be held or forced together, as when making a joint; a clamp: "The carpenter used a cramp, or two, to make the window frames."
3. Anything that presses or confines; also, a confined position or state: "In order to get a ride in the small car, she had to cramp herself into it."

1. Not having enough space to move freely or feeling crowded and uncomfortable: "Because of the winter storm, several people were cramped inside the tiny cabin."
2. Small and having parts too close together: "It's impossible to read her cramped handwriting."

An arm band of dark cloth, often worn on one’s sleeve, as a sign of mourning: "While deciding to attend the funeral of his friend, the man thought about wearing a crape on his left sleeve as well as on his hat."

Woven fabric that has a slight crinkly appearance: "The shop attendant stated that the crepe came in several colors for spring."

1. To move in a slow manner as in traffic or by moving on one's hands and knees: "The traffic slowed to a crawl which was so slow we all joked that we could crawl faster on our hands and knees."
2. While swimming, to move forward in water using an over arm stroke with one's arms and flutter kicking with one's feet: "The boy won several prizes for his prowess in the crawl during the swim meet."
3. In the fishing industry, a confined space in shallow water for such crops as lobster: "The fishing community protected the lobsters in the crawl from illegal fishers."

A method of fishing using a large cone shaped net which is dragged through the water, catching whatever is in the area: "There are many organizations who oppose trawl fishing because of the destruction of endangered species."

A reference to a particular kind of grating or squeaking sound: "We could hear the door creak as someone was walking in the hall with creaking shoes."

A very small stream which is often a shallow or intermittent tributary to a river: "When I was a boy, my brother and I used to go to a creek where we would seine or fish with a small net to catch some tiny fish to put in our aquarium."

A mark in fabric that is the result of folding the material along a line: "The cleaners used a special iron to make the crease on the suit pants."

A snake shaped dagger of Indonesian or Malay origin: "The tourist bought a kris, or creese, at the market as a souvenir but the officials at the airport told him to pack the dagger in his checked baggage."

Believable, capable of being believed, or worthy of confidence; reliable: "During the trial, she was presented as a credible witness for the defence."

Worthy of credit or praise for doing something: "Winning the spelling match was the result of the creditable performance by all the students."

A tendency to believe too readily: "The police captain questioned the credulity of the new officer during the investigation of the crime."

Inclined to believe almost anything; gullible; naive: "The credulous behavior of the young man who had just moved to the city suggested he was naive."

A large, deep fissure; especially, in a glacier: "The exploration team moved carefully over the glacier, watching for any existing dangerous crevasse."

A narrow split or crack: "It always amazes me that flowers in the desert grow within almost any crevice in rocks."

1. Groups of people working together: "The workers were sent out in separate crews."
2. Personnel on two ships, or aircrafts, who assist in the operations of the crafts which may or may not include officers: "Will both of the crews of the ships be ready to depart tomorrow?"

1. To sail or to travel about for pleasure: "We really enjoyed our cruise from Los Angeles to Mexico last year."
2. To travel at a speed providing maximum operating efficiency for a sustained period: "The bus will cruise at a maximum speed, not in excess of the posted speed limit, unless there is a traffic problem ahead."

The basis or standard upon which a judgment may be made: "The young woman was adamant about her criterion that a good husband is absolute honesty."

Things that are used as reasons for making judgments or decisions: "What were the criteria used to choose the winner of the writing contest?"

1. Someone who forms and expresses judgments of the merits, faults, value, or truth of a matter: "He is his own worst critic when it comes to analyzing his writing."
2. A person who specializes especially professionally in the evaluation and appreciation of literary or artistic works: "George Bernard Shaw worked as a theater critic before developing his drama writing career."
3. Any one who tends to make harsh or carping judgments; a faultfinder: "According to an article in the paper, a mother-in-law is often described as a critic of the marriage partner of her child."

1. An evaluation by using a review or commentary, especially one dealing with works of art or literature: "The critique of the new play in the morning paper was very positive."
2. A crucial or decisive discussion of a specified topic: "During the course of the dinner, they engaged in a wide ranging critique of the new policies at the university."

1. A harsh, rough sounding voice or sound: "By the end of the exciting game, her voice was just a croak because of her excessive cheering and yelling."
2. A slang term for death or dying: "He had a heart attack that caused him to croak."

1. A pot or jar made of baked clay: "When we went to the restaurant, we had chili served in a crock."
2. Something that is impossible to believe because it is untrue or ridiculous: "We could tell that the salesman's claims about his product were a crock."

A form of needlework: "Her grandmother gave her several pieces of laced crochet work as a birthday gift."

A lawn game using mallets, wooden balls, and wickets: "Croquet was considered a very genteel game for children during the 1900's."

A fried mass of mince (chopped) meat, fish, and/or vegetables: "The menu at the restaurant featured a croquette specialty."